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This was done through group conversations at the end of each activity. The role of the researchers, who were co-facilitating with teachers, was to ensure that the process was continuously evolving and to provide an equitable platform for open dialogue within the group.
Co-design process involving children, teachers, and researchers of the disaster risk reduction participatory mapping project, New Zealand Every session was documented by the researchers who were taking notes on both the participatory process and the debrief discussions with the children.
At the end of the project, two focus group discussions FGDs of one hour each were conducted with the children to assess the overall project. These tools are commonly used in development studies and DRR Gaillard et al. In addition, one FGD of one hour was conducted with the schoolteachers involved in the co-design and facilitation of the activities.
The results section treats the Minecraft and LEGO parts of the project together since despite slight differences, there were many similarities both with the process and the outcomes. For Minecraft, only 3 children did not know how to play the video game, while the other 17 all indicated playing regularly.
Jason aged 12 highlighted:. I worked on the legend and I liked that as I got to make my own choices, like it was my idea to write out the words on the legend using LEGO bricks instead of using paper. I guess I have a lot of LEGO at home so it was easy to work out how to make the best combinations with the bricks. The children using Minecraft advised the researchers and teachers and facilitated the activities of different technical trouble shooting strategies to access Minecraft while within the school.
The tools were accessible to all participants of all levels of experience and ability within the groups. LEGO and Minecraft were also effective in engaging female and male participants equally.
Notably, for LEGO, the girls participated more at the beginning when the concepts of hazards, vulnerability, and capacities in the community were defined. The boys were more engaged when the construction began. It was the other way around for Minecraft with the boys more enthusiastic and familiar with playing Minecraft at the start.
However, very quickly the girls were hands on mapping and discussing DRR using the video game, participating as much as the boys. The fact that LEGO and Minecraft are visual, interactive, and easy to use independently of any literacy or numeracy skills, made the process accessible to a wide range of age groups. LEGO also enabled children from a wide range of social skills to actively engage in DRR, because it provided a visual display of how they perceived their hazards, vulnerabilities, and capacities at a community level.
Minecraft also saw children with learning difficulties actively engage in gameplay and discussions about DRR, as it opened up a pathway for them to demonstrate their knowledge in a format that was familiar and engaging.
However, the results indicate that the age range of the group needs to be carefully considered. With respect to Minecraft, children aged over 11 years might be interested in other video games appropriate to their age.
Some of the participants between 11 and 13 years old commented on other games they played more, such as Fortnite or Battle-Royale. Because LEGO is designed to be put together and pulled apart it also meant students of less experience or of different abilities felt comfortable making mistakes.
The same applied to Minecraft where the children could create or undo anything they wanted very easily. For example, they could reconstruct a certain area or add new information on the maps such as evacuation points or flood-prone areas. This led to more discussions among themselves, with the children taking ownership of the process, solving problems, and overall discussing intensively their surrounding environment and disaster risk.
Then my favorite thing about being in the LEGO group has just being able to play with my friends and create our community. Stevie, aged The environment created felt different from the normal classroom setting, where generally the structure is more formal with a clear hierarchy between the adult teacher and the student child.
Tom aged 11 emphasized:. All of us are very happy playing together because we are all friends. Also, what I have enjoyed over the project is [the facilitator name] being very encouraging to us and lets us move about to another group if we have finished and another group needs help finishing something else.
When trying to get the students to prioritize one over the other, they viewed the two strengths of equal importance. This reiterates the complexity of participation and how several aspects of the process that is, play and the participants correlate and encourage participation.
Lula aged 11 commented:. With LEGO there was a sense of pride in completing the map and interacting with the adults about their own interpretation of DRR within their community. For Minecraft, the final outcome was not as visually tangible. However, the multiplayer and virtual aspects of Minecraft meant the children could work together within the game world but also see the potential outcomes of different issues like flooding in different areas, resulting in discussions about how such risks could be managed.
Many of the limitations identified by the students were also limitations that the researchers had identified and documented in the field notes. To overcome this, the children requested from the school principal to be able to come to the school over the weekend and work together on their LEGO map. The same occurred with Minecraft with the children asking to complete the map during weekends using the devices from home.
This was also rejected, the reason being that the parents would not agree. These refusals emphasize the limitations linked to working in a school environment that restricted a genuine participatory process.
But the teachers agreed to extend the number of sessions for both Minecraft and LEGO as well as allowing the children to continue mapping during the lunch break as requested by the children.
For LEGO the inflexibility of the bricks posed a key challenge. The students would often remark on the hurdles faced throughout the building process in terms of the size, shape, and color of the LEGO bricks.
The students also reflected on the limitations of the shape of the bricks that made it difficult to recreate realistic contours in the landscape and the curves of the hills. Ensuring the map looked realistic and true to their setting was important to the children. Jason aged 12 stated:.
When we finished the legend, I helped putting the houses on the hills and helped with the roads. These limitations identified by the children are important to consider from a researcher and facilitator perspective as they might affect ongoing participation. If the participants are not proud of the final map and how it looks, this might influence their willingness to use the map as a platform to engage in dialogue about DRR with outside stakeholders.
Minecraft posed different limitations and challenges. The main challenge identified by students was about technical issues such as firewalls preventing access to Minecraft, the number of devices available, or the Internet being slow and making the mapping process patchy at times. At the same time, the children were proactive in solving many of the challenges they faced. For example, due to the restrictions of the number of devices that could be connected to the server at one time, 14 devices equal to 14 in-game avatars could collaborate within the world at one time leading to approximately two children per avatar.
This situation posed problems for the facilitators who did not have enough tablets and thought the children would be disengaged. But the children quickly adapted by sharing the devices and working in groups. The Minecraft map had the advantage of providing the possibility to go beyond the boundaries defined at the start of the process. However, a limitation lies in the fact that Minecraft requires a tablet, computer, or cell phone to visualize the finished map and the information that goes on it.
They enabled conducting disaster risk assessment, discussing preparedness and evacuation, as well as planning for DRR. The children focused mainly on three main hazards: flood, drought, and wildfire. The Maraekakaho and Ngaruroro Rivers quickly became a focal point for debate. The children discussed their school exposure to flood and identified different households and assets adjacent to the rivers.
They commented on certain community members who would be particularly vulnerable such as older people households or younger children in the school. LEGO and Minecraft were useful to locate potential meeting points for the exposed households in preparing for evacuation as well as existing and new escape routes.
At the same time, they emphasized that the rivers presented opportunities to evacuate those affected by boat, which is something the adults teachers, parents involved in the discussions had not thought about:. LEGO map of Maraekakaho village produced by the children in the disaster risk reduction participatory mapping project, New Zealand With both Minecraft and LEGO, the children emphasized the importance of the surrounding hillside explaining that should the school be flooded it would be a good meeting point to evacuate.
They also thought of using the hillside as a preventive measure by evacuating farm animals when bad weather is forecasted:. So, people watch the news so they know what weather is coming and they can prepare. They can put the sheep up on the hills so they are safe. Jennifer, aged The rural setting with households working in the agriculture or horticulture industry that is, orchards, vineyards, or sheep and cattle farms influenced the discussions. The LEGO and Minecraft maps also fostered discussions on the importance of certain resources and assets during disaster— such as, the fire station, community hall, telecommunication systems, and so on—and planning accordingly.
For example, students using Minecraft recognized that the fire station was a critical resource in the face of disaster, and commented upon the movement of the fire station from its old location in a flood-prone area near the western side of the Maraekakaho River, to its new location in their school carpark following the flood Fig.
This led to the children questioning different disaster planning decisions made in their community. They queried the appropriateness of the location of the rubbish station in a flood-prone area on the eastern side of the Maraekakaho River bridge, when this could potentially create health and environmental hazards should it be flooded.
The children using Minecraft also discussed how the memorial is known as a meeting point to evacuate should a flood happen. However, they critiqued this decision arguing it is in a flood-prone area and labelled the memorial as such in Minecraft.
Maraekakaho flood in A: Maraekakaho School; B: Original location of the fire station; C: New fire station location; D: Maraekakaho River rubbish station located to the south, just out of frame. Photograph by one of the community members from Maraekakaho, with permission for publication. One of the original goals was to enable the children, with the help of LEGO and Minecraft, to have a dialogue and take part in the decision making with outside stakeholders for example, local council and adults about disaster preparedness.
However, this proved difficult in practice. The local practitioner and local people were somewhat impressed with the finished maps, including how much knowledge and understanding of disaster risk the children had about their own community.
Yet, this did not seem to translate into empowerment through decision making involving children and adults. The reluctance from the local council and community members to use Minecraft and LEGO as tools for decision making did not seem linked to the tools themselves, but seemed to be a consequence of their perceptions of children and their capacity to engage in discussion about DRR in the local community.
However, we did not conduct interviews with the local practitioners nor with other adults to gather their viewpoints to understand why this was the case. These included: 1 the Participants and the capacity of the tools to cater to their diversity; 2 Play to foster an integrative, engaging, and creative process; 3 the Process, which through play was child-centered and helped foster ownership; and 4 Power or empowerment , which through a fun and engaging process equipped the children with knowledge and tools to engage in discussion with adults.
Participation by essence should be inclusive and involve a wide array of participants Cornwall Eventually, LEGO and Minecraft proved effective in equally involving children of different gender, age, ethnicity, cultural background, and socioeconomic condition.
These games are visual and easy to use independently of any literacy or numeracy skills, making these tools accessible to a wide range of age groups and genders. Child-centered DRR recognizes that all forms of knowledge are valuable, and not only the more vocal, educated or wealthy children should participate Fothergill and Peek ; Gaillard et al.
LEGO and Minecraft proved effective in fostering the participation of all the participants in DRR—without targeting or prioritizing certain children or groups. The results nonetheless indicate that it is necessary to carefully consider the age of the participants as not being too young or too old.
Furthermore, both LEGO and Minecraft are highly popular in Western culture, but might, in other cultures, not be as grounded in the daily life of children. Therefore this needs to be carefully considered should these tools be used in a different sociocultural context.
The importance of the process was also reflected in the limitations that revolved around elements that prevented that process to be smooth and fun, such as firewalls and slow Internet for Minecraft or the shape, size, and availability of certain bricks for LEGO. While these aspects could seem without importance, they were critical to the children and ensuring a genuine participatory process in DRR.
For genuine participation to take place, it is essential that children take ownership over the participatory process. With LEGO and Minecraft, involving the children from the start and in every step of the mapping activities was crucial to ensuring a genuine process. Yet, conducting the project in a school setting presented challenges to achieving authentic participation.
The literature generally emphasizes that fostering the participation of children in DRR is a process, not an outcome Farrington et al. Nonetheless, facilitators should not dismiss the importance of the outcome to the participants.
For the children, the accuracy of the information on their maps and how they would look was critical to them being actively engaged and then discuss DRR. Beyond working and playing with friends, they were highly interested in the end-result too, so they could show their map to outsiders and discuss both what they had done or could do with them. A genuine participatory process entails redressing unequal power relations between children and adults Driskell ; Petal ; Wisner et al.
Children do not have the same competence in communicating as adults, but this does not mean that information from children is invalid Hart LEGO and Minecraft enabled the children to share their knowledge about hazards, vulnerability, and capacities in their surrounding environment.
The finished LEGO and Minecraft maps reflected this knowledge to the point that teachers and local people were impressed with the creativity and ideas regarding how to reduce disaster risk and improve disaster response. The children knew exactly about the information on their maps and had gained power through being able to have a dialogue with adults about DRR and development in their community.
Although LEGO and Minecraft were effective in equipping the children with tools to communicate with adults, this did not translate into actual planning and empowerment in the sense of taking part in the decision making. The fun, unstructured and overall playful dimensions of LEGO and Minecraft mapping led the children to truly enjoy participating in DRR, including requesting more sessions during and outside school time. Playing with LEGO and Minecraft appeared as a prolific and natural means of engaging the children in problem solving and knowledge construction about hazards and disasters.
Pioneering work from Rieber identifies four themes that relate to play: play as progress, play as power, play as fantasy, and play as self. Through play, children develop cognitive and physical skills, explore, learn, create, and collaborate with others Hart ; Rieber ; Granic et al.
Eventually, participation and play are strongly linked concepts: genuine participation is a critical component of play, and play does not exist without participation. However, to date there has been a lack of reflection on the capacity of play, as part of the participatory process, to empower children in DRR.
The 4-Ps-framework suggests the capacity of play to cater to a wide range of participants to actively engage them in the participatory process and for them to take ownership. In addition, play and games provide the means to empower children with disaster information they have produced through the process of play.
There is therefore an organic transfer of power and ownership of the participation process towards the children. Such transfer of power and downward accountability is one of the main obstacles observed in many DRR and development projects, including those focusing on children Chawla They often stir immediate attention among practitioners, including schoolteachers, because they break away from the usual teaching and learning materials such as books.
There is, in fact, a myriad of options to foster context-specific and culturally relevant playful participation Hart ; Auriat et al. This is probably one of the main challenges associated with initiatives designed around play. Therefore, adults need to partake in the participation process so that they can recognize the skills, knowledge, and resources of children, trust them and eventually transfer power to influence their everyday lives. What is playful to children may be less appealing to adults and vice versa.
The four Ps of the framework presented in this article thus need to be taken holistically. One cannot stand in isolation of the others. For this process to be meaningful to children it often must be playful Hart ; Hayward LEGO and Minecraft are tools that have the potential to provide such playful platforms for children to participate and gain power in the everyday affairs of their locality.
The case study from New Zealand emphasizes some key opportunities and challenges for the 4-Ps-framework to fully embrace its objectives. The latter has long focused on the process of sharing power towards children as participants.
This process is facilitated by the existence of multiple and diverse tools, games, and toys, that are increasingly used by practitioners. But the potential of this process has yet to be fully unleashed to address the unequal power relations between adults and children. The framework is not meant to be a rigid and normative template, nor does it constitute the only way to appraise participation with children Hart This framework is ultimately a contribution to both meeting the expectation of the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child and the ethical imperative to address the concerns of more than 2 billion children and adolescents under 18 years old worldwide.
Afari, E. International Journal of Information and Education Technology 7 6 : — Article Google Scholar. Arnstein, S. A ladder of citizen participation. Players will typically spend most of their time in this dimension. The nether wastes biome in the Nether. The Nether is a dimension containing oceans of lava. The ground consists of mainly netherrack and is typically considered the underworld of the game. Entering a nether portal from the Overworld will take the player to this dimension.
Despite the hostile nature of the dimension, there are still times of peace, though these are few and far between. The End is a space-like dimension with floating end stone islands, accessible with an end portal in a stronghold. It is typically considered the opposite of the Nether.
The End is a barren environment, but it is the only place where some of the most unique and useful items in the game can be obtained, such as the elytra or shulker boxes. There were also several easter egg dimensions, each having their own unique feature.
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